Martinique is a small Caribbean island in the Lesser Antilles. Its rich and complex history reflects broader themes in Caribbean history: colonisation, slavery, cultural blending, and the fight for independence. Although Martinique remains an overseas department of France today, its history is deeply intertwined with European colonisation and the African diaspora, resulting in a unique Creole culture.
Pre-colonial Martinique
Before European arrival, Martinique was inhabited by Indigenous peoples, first by the Arawak and later by the Carib. The island’s name, Martinique, derives from the Carib word “Madinina,” meaning “Island of Flowers.” The Indigenous Carib population had a well-established presence on the island, living in organised communities and practising agriculture, hunting, and fishing.
However, by the early 16th century, with the arrival of European explorers, the island’s indigenous cultures began to face disruption. Christopher Columbus is often credited with “discovering” Martinique in 1502 during his fourth voyage to the New World, although the Spanish did not establish a lasting settlement on the island.
The beginning of French colonisation (1635)
The real turning point in Martinique’s history came in 1635 when French settlers, led by Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc, claimed the island for France. d’Esnambuc, a French trader and adventurer, established the first permanent European settlement in Martinique after being expelled from St. Kitts by the British. He was acting on behalf of the Compagnie des Îles de l’Amérique, a French chartered company tasked with colonising and exploiting the wealth of the Caribbean.
The colonisation of Martinique was part of France’s broader imperial ambitions in the Caribbean. At this time, European powers were competing to control islands that could serve as economic hubs, primarily by producing sugar, tobacco, and other valuable crops. Initially, the French settlers relied on indentured servants, many of whom were poor Europeans brought to the island to work the plantations. However, as the colony grew, it became clear that indentured labour wouldn’t be enough for the intensive labour required to grow and process sugar.
Slavery and the plantation economy
By the mid-17th century, the French settlers turned to African slavery to meet the growing demand for labour. The development of the sugar industry transformed Martinique’s economy and society. Sugar quickly became the colony’s most important crop, and large-scale plantations began to dominate the island’s landscape. As the demand for sugar increased in Europe, so did the importation of enslaved Africans to work in the brutal conditions of the sugar fields and mills.
The transatlantic slave trade drastically altered Martinique’s demographics. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, tens of thousands of Africans were forcibly transported to the island, where they were subjected to brutal working conditions, violent repression, and dehumanising treatment. Over time, the enslaved population far outnumbered the European settlers.
French colonial rule was characterised by a strict and hierarchical system based on race. The French introduced the Code Noir (Black Code) in 1685, which codified the treatment of enslaved people in the French colonies. While the Code Noir ostensibly provided some protections for enslaved people, such as the right to food and shelter, it primarily served to regulate and institutionalise slavery, reinforcing the social and racial hierarchy of the colony.
Throughout slavery, enslaved Africans resisted their conditions through various forms of rebellion, both subtle and overt. These acts of resistance included running away, sabotage, and occasional violent revolts. Maroon communities made up of escaped enslaved people, formed in the mountainous interior of Martinique, where they resisted French authorities.
The abolition of slavery
In the late 18th century, revolutionary ideas from France began to influence the Caribbean colonies. The French Revolution of 1789, which espoused the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, had a significant impact on Martinique. However, the island’s powerful planter class, known as the békés, was determined to maintain the institution of slavery.
The abolitionist movement gained momentum during the revolutionary period, and in 1794, the French government temporarily abolished slavery in its colonies. However, this emancipation was short-lived in Martinique, as the island came under British occupation during the French Revolutionary Wars. The British, who sought to maintain the economic benefits of the plantation system, reinstated slavery.
Martinique was under British rule at various points during the 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily because of the military conflicts between France and Britain. These periods of British occupation were part of the larger struggles between the two powers for dominance in the Caribbean during the War of Austrian Succession, the Seven Years’ War, the American Revolutionary War, and the Napoleonic Wars. However, the French regained control each time through treaties and negotiations.
It wasn’t until 1848 that slavery was definitively abolished in Martinique following the Second French Republic’s decree. Victor Schœlcher, a French abolitionist and politician, played a key role in this emancipation effort. Schœlcher’s efforts, combined with the relentless resistance of enslaved people, ultimately led to the end of slavery on the island. After emancipation, many formerly enslaved people left the plantations, which resulted in labour shortages and forced the colonial authorities to seek new labour sources, including indentured workers from India and other regions.
Post-emancipation Martinique and the rise of Creole culture
The abolition of slavery did not bring immediate social or economic equality to the freed population. The plantation economy remained dominant, and the békés continued to wield significant economic and political power. Freedmen and women faced discrimination and limited opportunities for upward mobility.
Despite these challenges, the post-emancipation period saw the rise of a distinct Creole culture in Martinique. The blending of African, European, and Indigenous influences shaped the island’s language, music, religion, and cuisine. Creole became the primary language of the island’s inhabitants, reflecting the diverse origins of its people.
Culturally, Martinique developed a rich music and dance tradition, including genres such as bèlè and zouk, which have roots in African rhythms. The island’s religious practices also blended Catholicism with African spiritual traditions, creating a syncretic belief system called “Créolité.”
Martinique’s role in the French Empire
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Martinique remained an integral part of the French colonial empire. While many Caribbean islands were gaining independence, Martinique’s political status as a French colony continued. The island’s elites, particularly the békés, supported continued French rule because it guaranteed economic stability and preferential treatment.
World War I and World War II significantly impacted Martinique. Many Martiniquais fought for France during World War I, and the island’s economy struggled due to disrupted trade routes. The impact of the global economic depression in the 1930s also led to economic hardships.
During World War II, Martinique found itself under the Vichy government’s control after France’s defeat by Nazi Germany. However, the island was strategically important to the Allies, and in 1943, it was transferred to Free French control. The war years were marked by shortages, economic struggles, and political unrest, as many Martiniquais began to question their colonial status.
Post-war period and the path to departmentalisation
The end of World War II brought significant changes to Martinique’s political status. In 1946, Martinique became an official overseas department of France, along with Guadeloupe, French Guiana, and Réunion. This transition to departmentalisation marked a pivotal moment in the island’s history. It meant that Martinique was now considered an integral part of France, with the same legal and political rights as mainland French citizens.
However, the move towards departmentalisation did not resolve the island’s economic and social issues. Economic inequality, racial tensions, and political unrest continued to shape Martinican society. The island remained economically dependent on France, and many Martiniquais felt their unique cultural identity was being suppressed in favour of assimilation into French culture.
The independence movement
Throughout the 20th century, calls for greater autonomy and even independence grew louder. A key figure in this movement was Aimé Césaire, a poet, writer, and politician who played a central role in the development of Martinique’s cultural and political identity. Césaire was one of the founders of the Négritude movement, which sought to reclaim and celebrate African heritage in the face of European colonialism.
Césaire also served as the mayor of Fort-de-France and a representative in the French National Assembly. Although he initially supported departmentalisation, he later advocated for greater autonomy for Martinique. His political party, the Parti Progressiste Martiniquais (PPM), called for increased self-governance, although Césaire stopped short of advocating full independence.
In the 1960s and 1970s, there were violent protests and labor strikes in Martinique, as many Martiniquais expressed frustration with the island’s economic dependency on France and the persistence of racial inequalities. Some independence movements, such as the Mouvement Indépendantiste Martiniquais, emerged during this period, advocating for complete independence from France.
Martinique in the modern era
Despite the independence movement, Martinique remains an overseas department of France today. However, the island enjoys a significant degree of political and administrative autonomy. In 2015, Martinique became a single territorial collectivity with a unified regional and departmental government. This shift has given the island greater control over its own affairs, although it is still closely tied to France in many respects.
Culturally, Martinique continues to celebrate its Creole heritage and vibrant music, dance, and literature traditions. The island’s complex identity, shaped by centuries of colonisation, slavery, and resistance, remains central to its modern consciousness.
Economically, Martinique is heavily dependent on subsidies from France and the European Union. Tourism is a major industry, as visitors are drawn to the island’s natural beauty, including its beaches, rainforests, and the iconic Mont Pelée volcano. However, economic inequality and unemployment remain significant challenges.
The history of Martinique, from colonisation to the modern day, is one of struggle, survival, and adaptation. The island’s journey from Indigenous Carib settlement to French colony, through the horrors of slavery, the challenges of emancipation, and the ongoing quest for autonomy, reflects broader Caribbean themes.
