The region that comprises modern Sudan has been home to some of Africa’s most sophisticated civilisations, with a history stretching back thousands of years.
Nubia and Kush
The ancient land of Nubia, extending from Aswan in southern Egypt to Khartoum in central Sudan, served as a crucial corridor between sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean world.
Around 2500 BCE, Nubia emerged as a powerful centre of civilisation, developing its own distinct culture while maintaining close – though often contentious – relations with ancient Egypt. The Nubians were renowned for their archery skills, earning them the Egyptian nickname “Land of the Bow,” their warriors were highly sought after as mercenaries.
The Kingdom of Kush arose around 1070 BCE, establishing its first capital at Napata near the Fourth Cataract of the Nile. The Kushites adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture, including hieroglyphic writing and the worship of Egyptian gods, while maintaining their own unique traditions and identity. Under the leadership of dynamic rulers like Piye (Piankhi), Kush expanded northward, eventually conquering Egypt and establishing the 25th Dynasty of “Black Pharaohs,” who ruled both kingdoms from approximately 747-656 BCE.
One of the most significant early rulers of Kush was Kashta, whose name means “The Kushite.” Kashta succeeded his brother Alara, who is often regarded as the founder of the Napatan royal dynasty and the unifier of Upper Nubia. Alara established Napata as the religious capital of Kush, and his legacy was continued by Kashta, who extended Kushite control into Upper Egypt. Kashta successfully positioned his daughter, Amenirdis I, as God’s Wife of Amun in Thebes, solidifying Kushite influence over the powerful priesthood of Amun. His son, Piye, would go on to conquer the rest of Egypt and establish the 25th Dynasty, while his other son, Shabaka, succeeded Piye and firmly rooted Kushite rule in Egypt.
Egyptian control and cultural exchange
Egypt’s influence over the region fluctuated throughout history. During the Old and Middle Kingdoms (c. 2700-1650 BCE), Egypt established fortresses and trading posts along the Nile, seeking to control trade in gold, ivory, and exotic goods from sub-Saharan Africa. The relationship between Egypt and Nubia was complicated, marked by periods of conquest, cooperation, and cultural exchange.
The New Kingdom period (c. 1550-1070 BCE) saw the height of Egyptian control over Nubia, with the region being governed by a viceroy known as the “King’s Son of Kush.” This period left an indelible mark on Nubian culture, as evidenced by the numerous temples and monuments built in Egyptian style throughout the region.
The rise and fall of Meroe
Following the Assyrian conquest of Egypt and the expulsion of the Kushite pharaohs, the Kingdom of Kush relocated its capital to Meroe around 590 BCE. This marked the beginning of a golden age that would last for nearly a millennium. Meroe developed its own written script, a sophisticated iron-working industry, and distinctive artistic traditions.
The Meroitic civilisation was characterised by powerful queen mothers known as Kandakes, who often ruled alongside their sons. The kingdom maintained its independence against various powers, including a failed invasion attempt by Roman forces under Gaius Petronius in 23 BCE.
However, Meroe eventually fell due to a combination of internal decline and external pressures. Overuse of natural resources, including deforestation for iron smelting, led to environmental degradation. The rise of the Aksumite Kingdom in present-day Ethiopia also played a significant role. Around 350 CE, the Aksumites, under King Ezana, launched a military campaign that ultimately led to the downfall of Meroe, effectively ending Kushite rule.
The coming of Christianity and Islam
Christianity reached Nubia in the 6th century CE, leading to the establishment of three Christian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. These kingdoms successfully resisted the initial Muslim Arab expansion, signing a unique peace treaty known as the Baqt in 652 CE, which allowed for peaceful coexistence and trade.
The gradual spread of Islam began in the 7th century, accelerating after the fall of the Christian kingdoms in the 14th and 15th centuries. Arab tribes migrated into the region, leading to the gradual Arabization and Islamization of much of the population, though some areas maintained their traditional beliefs and customs.
The Turco-Egyptian period and the Mahdist State
In 1820, Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt conquered Sudan, establishing Turco-Egyptian rule that would last until 1885. This period saw the establishment of a modern administration, the foundation of Khartoum as a capital, and the gradual suppression of the slave trade.
The harsh Egyptian administration and economic exploitation led to the rise of Muhammad Ahmad, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi (the prophesied redeemer of Islam). His followers overthrew the Turco-Egyptian government and established an independent Islamic state in 1885. The Mahdist State survived until 1898 when it was defeated by Anglo-Egyptian forces.
The path to independence
The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium period (1899-1956) saw Sudan administered jointly by Britain and Egypt. This period was marked by the development of modern infrastructure, education systems, and political institutions, but also by policies that favoured the northern regions over the south.
Sudanese nationalism grew throughout the first half of the 20th century, led by educated elites and religious leaders. The Graduate Congress, formed in 1938, became a significant voice for independence. Following World War II, pressure for self-determination intensified, leading to the establishment of the first Sudanese parliament in 1953.
Sudan achieved independence on 1 January 1956, becoming one of Africa’s first independent nations. However, the legacy of uneven development and regional disparities would continue to challenge the new nation, leading to multiple civil conflicts and eventually the separation of South Sudan in 2011.
The Sudanese Civil Wars
Sudan experienced two prolonged civil wars that highlighted deep divisions between the north and south. The First Sudanese Civil War (1955-1972) began before independence. It was driven by grievances over the marginalisation of the largely non-Muslim, non-Arab south by the Arab-Muslim-dominated government in Khartoum. The war ended with the Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972, which granted the South a degree of autonomy.
However, the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) reignited due to the government’s efforts to impose Islamic law nationwide, exacerbating tensions. The conflict, one of the longest civil wars in history, resulted in the deaths of an estimated two million people and displaced millions more. The war ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005, which led to a referendum and, ultimately, the independence of South Sudan in 2011.
Modern challenges
Post-independence Sudan has faced numerous challenges, including civil wars, political instability, and economic difficulties. Today, Sudan grapples with issues of national identity, political representation, and economic development. The rich historical legacy of ancient Nubia and Kush, the influence of Egypt, and the complex interplay of African and Arab cultures continue to shape the nation’s development and its place in the modern world.
Conflict
Sudan is currently experiencing a severe internal conflict that began in April 2023. The war erupted due to a power struggle between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), commanded by General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, also known as Hemedti. This conflict has led to widespread violence, significant civilian casualties, and a dire humanitarian crisis.
The fighting has resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and has displaced over 12 million people, creating the world’s largest displacement crisis. The conflict has also led to severe food shortages, with half of Sudan’s population facing hunger.
In the Darfur region, the RSF and allied militias have been accused of committing atrocities against non-Arab communities, particularly the Masalit people. These actions have been described as ethnic cleansing and genocide by various international observers. The violence has forced millions to flee their homes, with many seeking refuge in neighboring countries.
Efforts to mediate the conflict have so far been unsuccessful. The United Arab Emirates recently proposed a ceasefire during the holy month of Ramadan. The proposal was rejected by the Sudanese army, which accuses the UAE of arming the RSF. The international community continues to call for an end to the violence and increased humanitarian assistance to address the escalating crisis.
