The American occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934 remains a contentious and controversial chapter in history. It was a period marked by political intervention, economic control, and social unrest.
Background and motivations
Haiti’s strategic importance to the United States dates back to the 19th century when President Andrew Johnson proposed its annexation along with the Dominican Republic. The possibility of establishing a naval base in Haiti appealed to U.S. diplomatic and defence officials, as they feared foreign rule in the region.
In the late 19th century, Secretary of State James Blaine attempted to secure a lease of Mole-Saint-Nicolas, a city on Haiti’s northern coast, for a naval base. His efforts were unsuccessful, but they underscored the United States’ growing economic and diplomatic interests in the country.
At the turn of the 20th century, Germany’s presence in Haiti increased significantly. German merchants established trading branches, dominating commercial business in the area. This raised concerns for the United States, which considered Germany its chief rival in the Caribbean. The fear of German control of Haiti fueled the growing instability in the country.
The occupation begins
In February 1915, Jean Vilbrun Guillaume Sam assumed power as the President of Haiti. Sam’s repressive measures and the execution of 167 political prisoners in July 1915 resulted in a popular uprising against his government. President Sam was assassinated, and the United States, which viewed this revolt as a threat to American business interests in Haiti, decided to intervene.
President Woodrow Wilson, fearing the potential for foreign influence and instability in Haiti, ordered 330 United States Marines to occupy Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti. They arrived on 28 July 1915. The United States aimed to protect its economic dominance in the country, particularly in industries such as the Haitian American Sugar Company. This occupation began a long period of American influence in Haiti.
The United States’ main objectives during the occupation were maintaining political and economic stability, protecting American interests, and preventing foreign rule in Haiti. The occupation began with the removal of $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, giving the United States control over the country’s finances.
With the ratification of the Haitian-American Convention on 15 September 1915, the United States gained complete control over Haiti’s finances and institutions for ten years. For the next nineteen years, U.S. State Department advisers ruled Haiti, with their authority enforced by the United States Marine Corps. Under this military regime, Haiti was subjected to martial law. The Haitian Gendarmerie, a military force consisting of both U.S. citizens and Haitians, was established and controlled by the U.S. Marines. They were used to suppress any opposition to the occupation. This level of control led to widespread discontent and resistance among the Haitian population.
Forced labour and repression
The United States’ occupation of Haiti was marred by numerous human rights abuses, including censorship, concentration camps, forced labour, racial segregation, and religious persecution of Haitian Vodou practitioners. The construction of infrastructure, such as roads, schools, and hospitals, relied heavily on a tyrannical forced labour system.
These measures led to widespread resentment and resistance. Thousands of Haitian civilians lost their lives during rebellions between 1915 and 1920.
During the occupation, the United States implemented policies that favoured American businesses at the expense of Haitian autonomy. They sought to rewrite the Haitian constitution to allow for foreign ownership of land, further consolidating American control over the country’s resources. These measures sparked resentment among the Haitian people, who felt marginalised and exploited.
Peasant rebellions
In 1919, a peasant rebellion erupted in response to the occupation’s policies. This rebellion and the Senate’s investigation into claims of abuse prompted the U.S. Senate to reorganise and centralise power in Haiti. While some stability was achieved, poverty remained widespread among the Haitian population.
By the late 1920s, Haitians had grown increasingly frustrated with the American occupation.
The dissatisfaction culminated in widespread protests and demonstrations. In October 1929, student protests erupted at the American-created Service Technique de l’Agriculture et de l’Enseignement Professionne school due to decreased scholarship awards for Haitians. These protests soon transformed into a general strike, with Haitians from all walks of life joining together to voice their opposition to the occupation.
The Les Cayes Massacre
On 6 December 1929, a peaceful demonstration took place in Les Cayes, a city in southern Haiti. Approximately 1,500 Haitians gathered to protest against the economic conditions, high taxes, and the arrest of three protest leaders. Chanting “À bas la misère” or “Down with misery,” the protesters marched towards Les Cayes.
As the march approached the city, United States Marine Corps troops armed with machine guns blocked their advance. Tensions escalated, and some protesters began throwing stones. Fearing for their safety, the Marines opened fire on the crowd, resulting in the deaths of 12 Haitian peasants and leaving 23 injured. This event came to be known as the Les Cayes massacre.
The Les Cayes massacre sparked international condemnation and pressured the United States to withdraw its occupying forces from Haiti. The day after the killings, President Herbert Hoover called on Congress to investigate the conditions in Haiti. The Forbes Commission, appointed by President Hoover, concluded that the occupation had failed and that the United States did not understand the social problems of Haiti.
Resistance and withdrawal
Throughout the occupation, resistance movements, such as the Cacos, fought against the U.S. presence. These movements represented the Haitian people’s desire for independence and the restoration of their sovereignty. The resistance efforts, coupled with international pressure, contributed to the eventual withdrawal of U.S. troops.
In the 1930s, the United States began training Haitian officials to take control of the government. This marked the beginning of a gradual withdrawal process. In 1934, the United States officially withdrew from Haiti, although it retained economic connections with the country.
Legacy and controversies
The American occupation of Haiti left a lasting impact on the country. While some infrastructure developments were made, the forced labour system and oppressive policies created deep resentment among the Haitian population. The occupation also exacerbated existing social and economic inequalities, leaving a legacy of poverty and political instability.
