The major branches of Islam: History, beliefs, and differences

Islam, one of the world’s major religions with over 1.8 billion followers, is not a monolithic faith. Like other major world religions, Islam has developed into several distinct branches over its 1,400-year history. These divisions stem from early disagreements about religious authority, interpretation of Islamic law, and theological questions that arose after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE.

The Great Schism: Origins of the Sunni-Shia split

The primary division in Islam traces back to a fundamental question of succession following Prophet Muhammad’s death. This dispute would shape Islamic history and create the two largest branches of Islam: Sunni and Shia.

The succession crisis

When Prophet Muhammad died without naming a clear successor, the Muslim community faced its first major crisis. Two main groups emerged with different views on who should lead the ummah (Muslim community):

The Sunni Position: Supported Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s close companion and father-in-law, believing that the community should choose its leader based on merit and consultation (shura). They argued that the Prophet had not appointed a specific successor, leaving the choice to the community.

The Shia Position: Believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was the rightful successor. They argued that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor and that leadership should remain within the Prophet’s family (Ahl al-Bayt).

This disagreement led to the first fitna (civil war) in Islamic history and established the fundamental theological and political differences that persist today.

Sunni Islam: The majority branch

Sunni Islam represents approximately 85-90% of the world’s Muslim population. The name “Sunni” derives from “Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaah,” meaning “people of the tradition and the community.”

Core beliefs and practices

Sources of authority: Sunnis recognise four primary sources of Islamic law (Sharia):

• The Quran (direct word of God)
• Hadith (sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad)
• Ijma (consensus of Islamic scholars)
• Qiyas (analogical reasoning)

Leadership structure: Sunnis believe in the concept of the Caliphate, where the community chooses the leader (Caliph) and serves as both political and religious leader. However, they do not believe the Caliph is divinely appointed or infallible.

The four Sunni schools of jurisprudence:

1. Hanafi: The largest school, predominant in Turkey, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent
2. Maliki: Common in North and West Africa
3. Shafi’i: Found in East Africa, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Middle East
4. Hanbali: Predominant in Saudi Arabia, known for strict textual interpretation

Historical development

The Sunni branch consolidated power under the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) and later the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE). The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922) represented the last major Sunni caliphate, claiming leadership over the entire Sunni world.

Shia Islam: The Party of Ali

Shia Islam comprises approximately 10-15% of Muslims worldwide, with the largest populations in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain. The name “Shia” comes from “Shiat Ali,” meaning “party of Ali.”

Fundamental beliefs

Divine appointment: Shia believe that Ali and his descendants were divinely appointed to lead the Muslim community. This leadership, known as the Imamate, is considered a continuation of prophetic authority.

The Twelve Imams: Most Shias follow the Twelver tradition, recognising twelve Imams beginning with Ali. The twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, is believed to be in occultation (hidden) and will return as the Mahdi to establish justice on Earth.

Infallibility: Shia believe that the Imams are ma’sum (infallible) and possess special knowledge of Islamic law and theology.

Major Shia subdivisions

Twelver Shia (Ithna Ashariyya)

The largest Shia group, representing about 85% of all Shias:

• Recognise twelve Imams from Ali to Muhammad al-Mahdi
• Predominant in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain
• Developed sophisticated theological and legal traditions
• Emphasise the role of learned clerics (ulema) in interpreting religious law

Ismaili Shia (Seveners)

• Split from Twelvers over succession after the sixth Imam
• Recognise Ismail ibn Jafar as the seventh Imam
• Include various sub-groups like the Nizari Ismailis (led by the Aga Khan)
• Emphasise esoteric interpretation of Islamic teachings
• Significant communities in South Asia, Central Asia, and East Africa

Zaidi Shia (Fivers)

• Recognise only five Imams, ending with Zayd ibn Ali
• Closest to Sunni Islam in many practices
• Historically ruled Yemen for over 1,000 years
• Currently represent about 35% of Yemen’s population

Other significant branches and movements

Sufism: The mystical dimension

Sufism represents the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, found within both Sunni and Shia traditions:

• Emphasises direct personal experience of God through spiritual practices
• Organised into various orders (tariqas) with distinct practices and teachings
• Includes famous figures like Rumi, Ibn Arabi, and al-Ghazali
• Often incorporates poetry, music, and dance in worship

Ahmadiyya

A controversial movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 19th-century India:

• Claims Ahmad was a prophet and the promised Mahdi
• Rejected by mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims who consider Muhammad the final prophet
• Faces persecution in several Muslim-majority countries
• Emphasises peaceful propagation of Islam and interfaith dialogue

Ibadi Islam

An early branch that survives primarily in Oman:

• Developed independently from the Sunni-Shia split
• Emphasises consultation and consensus in leadership
• Represents the majority in Oman and minority communities in North Africa

Key theological and practical differences

Authority and leadership

• Sunni: Community-based leadership through consensus and consultation
• Shia: Divinely appointed leadership through the Imamate
• Ibadi: Emphasis on piety and consultation in choosing leaders

Religious practices

Prayer: While all Muslims perform five daily prayers, Shias sometimes combine prayers, resulting in three prayer sessions instead of five separate ones.

Pilgrimage: Both Sunni and Shia Muslims perform Hajj to Mecca, but Shias also make pilgrimages to shrines of the Imams, particularly in Iraq and Iran.

Religious calendar: Shias place special emphasis on commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein (grandson of Prophet Muhammad) during the month of Muharram, particularly on the day of Ashura.

Legal interpretation

• Sunni: Relies on the four established schools of jurisprudence
• Shia: Emphasises the continued guidance of living religious authorities
• Ibadi: Maintains its own legal traditions and scholarly consensus

Contemporary challenges and relations

Sectarian tensions

The Sunni-Shia divide has been exploited in various political conflicts:

• Iran-Saudi Arabia rivalry reflects broader Shia-Sunni geopolitical competition
• Conflicts in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen have sectarian dimensions
• Extremist groups like ISIS have targeted Shia communities

Reform and modernisation

All branches of Islam face challenges in adapting to modernity:

• Questions about women’s rights and gender equality
• Relationship between religious law and secular governance
• Integration of scientific knowledge with religious teachings
• Interfaith dialogue and pluralism

Unity movements

Despite differences, there are ongoing efforts to promote Islamic unity:

• Ecumenical movements emphasising shared beliefs and practices
• Collaborative responses to global challenges like poverty and climate change
• Interfaith dialogue initiatives

Conclusion

The diversity within Islam reflects the religion’s rich intellectual and spiritual heritage. While theological and political differences have sometimes led to conflict, the various branches of Islam share fundamental beliefs in monotheism, the prophethood of Muhammad, and the Quran as divine revelation. Understanding these differences is crucial for appreciating the complexity of the Islamic world and the diverse ways Muslims express their faith.

The branches of Islam continue to evolve, facing modern challenges while maintaining their distinct identities and traditions. As the global Muslim community grows and becomes increasingly interconnected, the relationship between these different branches will likely continue to shape the future of Islam and its role in the world.

Rather than viewing these differences as divisions, they can be understood as different paths within the same spiritual tradition, each offering unique insights into the practice and understanding of Islam. This diversity has enriched Islamic civilisation throughout history and continues to contribute to its dynamism today.