Paul Leroy Robeson was born on 9 April 1898 in Princeton, New Jersey, to a lineage marked by resilience and determination. His father, William Drew Robeson, was a former slave who escaped to freedom and became a minister. His mother, Maria Louisa Bustill, came from a distinguished Quaker family of mixed ancestry. Raised in a household that valued education and perseverance, young Paul excelled academically and athletically.
Robeson earned a scholarship to Rutgers University in 1915, becoming only the third African American to attend the institution. A brilliant student and exceptional athlete, he was a star football player and a member of the Phi Beta Kappa honour society. He graduated as class valedictorian in 1919. Later, he pursued law at Columbia University, supporting himself by playing professional football and performing in theatrical productions.
Rise to fame: The artist and activist
Robeson’s extraordinary talents as a singer and actor led him away from law and into the performing arts. He gained international fame in the 1920s and 1930s for his deep, resonant baritone and commanding stage presence.
During the 1920s and 1930s, Paul Robeson established himself as a groundbreaking performer on the British stage and screen, which would prove crucial to his later artistic and political development. His journey began in 1922 with a touring production of the melodrama “Voodoo,” where British audiences first encountered his commanding stage presence. This was followed by his portrayal of Brutus Jones in Eugene O’Neill’s “The Emperor Jones” in 1925. This role challenged racial stereotypes through its complex characterisation of an African American protagonist.
Robeson’s career reached new heights in 1928 with his unforgettable performance as Joe in the London premiere of “Show Boat.” His rendition of “Ol’ Man River” became particularly iconic, as he subtly altered the lyrics over time to transform it from a song of resignation to one of resistance. During this period, Robeson and his wife Eslanda made London their home, which allowed him to develop his concert repertoire and build connections with British intellectuals and activists who would influence his political consciousness.
Perhaps most significantly, this time in London allowed Robeson to tackle one of theatre’s most demanding roles: Shakespeare’s Othello. This 1930 production marked the first of three times he would play the Moor of Venice, each interpretation growing deeper as his understanding of racial politics evolved. His success in this role helped challenge the longstanding tradition of performing Othello in blackface and opened doors for future generations of Black classical actors.
The mid-1930s saw Robeson transition into film, appearing in “Sanders of the River” (1935) and the screen adaptation of “Show Boat” (1936). However, his experience with “Sanders of the River” proved particularly enlightening – while he had hoped the film would present a dignified portrayal of Africa, he was disappointed to see how the final edit reinforced colonial stereotypes. This realisation would strengthen his commitment to using his artistic platform for explicit political purposes in the years that followed.
Robeson’s political activities began with his involvement with unemployed workers and anti-imperialist students in Britain, and it continued with his support for the Republican cause during the Spanish Civil War and his involvement in the Council on African Affairs.
As a singer, Robeson’s rendition of “Ol’ Man River” from Show Boat became iconic. His concerts featured spirituals and folk songs from various cultures, reflecting his deep commitment to social justice. He travelled extensively, using his platform to advocate for civil rights, labour movements, and anti-colonial struggles worldwide.
Unlike some of his contemporaries, Robeson consistently connected racial inequality in America to global systems of colonialism and economic exploitation. He used cultural expression, particularly African American spirituals, to raise political consciousness, demonstrating his belief that artistic excellence could be a powerful weapon against racism. His ability to bridge artistic talent and activism underscored the absurdity of racial prejudice.
Robeson also embraced international solidarity, building connections between African American civil rights and worldwide liberation movements. His travels and relationships with global leaders reinforced his conviction that the struggle for freedom was not confined to any one nation but was instead a universal fight against oppression.
Communist allegations
Robeson’s outspoken advocacy for racial equality and labour rights brought him into conflict with the U.S. government, particularly during the early years of the Cold War.
His remarks at the 1949 Paris Peace Congress were taken out of context, marking him as a communist sympathiser.
French transcripts of the speech obtained by Robeson’s biographer Martin Duberman indicate that Robeson said, “We in America do not forget that it is on the backs of the poor whites of Europe…and on the backs of millions of black people the wealth of America has been acquired. And we are resolved that it shall be distributed in an equitable manner among all of our children and we don’t want any hysterical stupidity about our participating in a war against anybody no matter whom. We are determined to fight for peace. We do not wish to fight the Soviet Union.”
However, the Associated Press’s version of Robeson’s remarks read: “It is unthinkable that American Negros would go to war on behalf of those who have oppressed us for generations against the Soviet Union which in one generation has lifted our people to full human dignity.”
The source of that transcript remains unknown; the singer’s son, Paul Robeson Jr., has said that because it was filed before his father actually spoke at the conference, the anonymous AP correspondent might have cobbled it together from remarks his father had previously made in Europe.)
The damage was done. By the following day, the press accused Robeson of being a traitor.
Division in the Black community
In the landscape of Cold War politics and civil rights activism, a pivotal moment unfolded, revealing deep divisions within the African American community. The U.S. State Department, concerned about Robeson’s growing influence and criticism of American racism on the international stage, moved to undermine his leadership by pressuring two prominent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People leaders, Roy Wilkins and Walter White, to respond to his statements. The NAACP, keenly aware of the dangers of being associated with communism during this period, distanced itself from Robeson. This tension became explicit when Channing Tobias, who served on the NAACP’s board of directors, branded Robeson “an ingrate.”
The government’s strategy to diminish Robeson’s standing reached a critical point on 18 July 1949, when they brought Jackie Robinson to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Robinson, who had broken baseball’s colour barrier just two years earlier, represented a different approach to advancing civil rights. In his testimony, Robinson stated that Robeson’s “silly” personal views did not represent the broader African American community. This moment highlighted the growing ideological divide among civil rights leaders about how best to challenge racial inequality in America.
The criticism of Robeson extended beyond conservative circles to include prominent liberals like Eleanor Roosevelt. Her statement that “Mr. Robeson does his people great harm in trying to line them up on the Communist side of political picture. Jackie Robinson helps them greatly by his forthright statements” reflected a broader concern among liberal activists that Robeson’s radical critique of American racism and capitalism might undermine the broader civil rights movement.
This episode illustrates how Cold War politics complicated and sometimes fractured the civil rights movement, forcing leaders to navigate between their commitment to racial equality and the intense anti-communist pressure of the era. The different responses to Robeson’s activism reveal the diverse strategies and ideological perspectives within the African American community during this critical period.
Despite this persecution, Robeson remained steadfast. He continued to speak out against lynching, advocated for fair employment practices, and supported labour unions. His testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1956 was particularly notable, where he boldly challenged his interrogators about their own records on civil rights.
Blacklisted
Accused of being a communist sympathiser, Robeson was blacklisted by the entertainment industry and his concerts were cancelled. His yearly income dropped from more than $150,000 to less than $3,000, and he was effectively silenced in the mainstream media. The U.S. State Department revoked his passport in 1950, severely limiting his ability to perform internationally. Despite these restrictions, he continued to fight for human rights, performing in secret and supporting civil rights movements in America and abroad.
Later years
The relentless persecution took a toll on Robeson’s health. By the late 1950s, he suffered from depression and exhaustion, exacerbated by reported electroshock therapy administered in an effort to “treat” his distress. His passport was reinstated in 1958, allowing him to travel again, but the years of ostracisation had weakened his influence.
Robeson spent his later years in relative seclusion, residing in Philadelphia with his sister. His public appearances became rare, and he withdrew from active political engagement. On 23 January 1976, he passed away at the age of 77.
Legacy
Paul Robeson’s legacy extends far beyond the stage and screen. A pioneering artist, courageous activist, and advocate for global justice, he paved the way for future generations of Black artists and intellectuals.
The impact of Robeson’s civil rights work rippled through subsequent generations of activists. His insistence on connecting domestic civil rights with international human rights influenced leaders like Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. His use of culture as a tool for social change inspired artists and activists who followed. Though vilified in his lifetime for his political beliefs, history has since recognised him as a hero who fought tirelessly against oppression and injustice. Today, his contributions to culture and human rights continue to inspire, reminding us of the power of art as a force for change.