Operation Ajax is the story of how a democratic government was destroyed to protect oil interests, how intelligence agencies perfected techniques of covert regime change, and how the consequences of those actions continue to shape international relations decades later.
The 1953 Coup: Operation Ajax
American entry and the CIA’s role
While Britain had initially taken the lead in opposing Mossadegh’s government, the United States became increasingly involved as the oil crisis dragged on through 1951 and 1952. The Truman administration initially showed sympathy for Iranian nationalism and had been critical of British colonial practices. However, the Eisenhower administration, which took office in January 1953, proved far more receptive to British arguments about the threat posed by Mossadegh’s government.
The shift in American policy reflected the changing dynamics of the Cold War. Iran’s proximity to the Soviet Union, the presence of the communist Tudeh Party in Iranian politics, and fears about Soviet expansion into the Middle East made American policymakers increasingly nervous about instability in Iran. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and CIA Director Allen Dulles viewed the world through a Cold War lens that left little room for neutralist positions or independent nationalism.
The CIA, under Allen Dulles, developed Operation Ajax as a comprehensive plan to remove Mossadegh from power and install a more compliant government. The operation was designed and executed by Kermit Roosevelt Jr., grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt and a veteran intelligence operative. The American decision to participate in the coup was influenced by several converging factors: growing concern about potential Soviet influence in Iran, pressure from American oil companies eager to break the British monopoly on Iranian oil, and the Eisenhower administration’s more aggressive approach to containing communism worldwide.
The planning for Operation Ajax drew on CIA experiences in other countries, notably the successful overthrow of the Guatemalan government earlier in 1954. The operation would use a combination of propaganda, bribery, organised demonstrations, and coordination with sympathetic Iranian military officers to create the conditions for Mossadegh’s removal.
The mechanics of regime change
Operation Ajax was a sophisticated covert operation that employed multiple tactics designed to destabilise Mossadegh’s government and create justification for military intervention. The CIA had spent months developing networks of Iranian assets, including military officers, politicians, journalists, and street organisers who could be activated when the time came for action.
The operation’s propaganda component was crucial to its success. CIA operatives planted stories in Iranian newspapers portraying Mossadegh as a communist sympathiser who was leading Iran toward Soviet domination. Fake documents were created to suggest that Mossadegh was planning to dissolve the monarchy and establish a republic. Religious conservatives were told that Mossadegh planned to confiscate religious properties and suppress Islamic institutions.
Bribery played a pivotal role in securing the support of key Iranian officials. CIA operatives distributed substantial sums of money to military officers, politicians, and tribal leaders who might support the coup. The amounts involved were significant—CIA records later revealed that hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on bribes and other forms of political influence.
The coup plot also involved organising street demonstrations to create an atmosphere of chaos and instability. CIA operatives hired crowds to demonstrate both for and against Mosaddegh, creating the impression of widespread civil unrest. The goal was to make military intervention appear necessary for restoring order and stability.
Perhaps most importantly, the CIA coordinated with Iranian military officers who opposed Mossadegh’s government. These officers, many of whom had been trained by American advisors or had ties to the royal court, were crucial for providing the military force necessary to actually remove Mosaddegh from power.
The first attempt and initial failure
The first attempt to execute the coup on 15 August 1953 was a complete failure. Iranian military units loyal to Mosaddegh refused to participate in the plot, and word of the attempted coup quickly spread throughout Tehran. Colonel Nematollah Nassiri, who had been tasked with arresting Mosaddegh, was himself arrested by government forces.
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who had been informed of the coup plot and had signed the necessary decrees dismissing Mosaddegh, fled Iran when the coup appeared to have failed. He flew first to Baghdad and then to Rome, convinced that his reign was over and that he would never return to Iran.
The failure of the first coup attempt created a dangerous situation for the CIA operatives involved in the plot. Iranian security forces were actively searching for the conspirators, and several key Iranian assets had been arrested. Some officials in Washington believed that Operation Ajax should be abandoned and that the CIA should evacuate its personnel from Iran.
However, Kermit Roosevelt, the operation’s chief architect, refused to abandon the mission. Working with remaining Iranian assets, he continued efforts to destabilise Mosaddegh’s government and create conditions for a second coup attempt. Roosevelt’s persistence would prove crucial to the operation’s ultimate success.
The successful coup of 19 August
The successful coup came on 19 August 1953, when military units led by General Fazlollah Zahedi, backed by crowds organised by CIA operatives, overwhelmed government forces and seized control of key points throughout Tehran. The operation succeeded through a combination of military action and popular demonstrations that created the impression of widespread opposition to Mosaddegh’s government.
The crowds that demonstrated against Mosaddegh on 19 August included both genuine opponents of his government and paid agitators organised by the CIA. The atmosphere of chaos and instability convinced wavering military officers that they needed to act to restore order. Key military units that had remained loyal during the 15 August attempt switched sides, providing the force necessary to overcome government resistance.
By evening, it was over. Mosaddegh was arrested in his residence and taken into custody. Government buildings throughout Tehran were occupied by military forces loyal to the Shah. The democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran had been overthrown by a foreign intelligence operation that cost less than one million dollars to execute.
The speed and apparent ease of the coup’s success masked the sophisticated planning and extensive preparation that had made it possible. Operation Ajax represented a new model of covert regime change that would be employed by intelligence agencies for decades to come.
Immediate consequences and the restoration of the Shah
Following the coup, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to Iran from his brief exile, hailed by his supporters as the saviour of the monarchy and the nation. The shah quickly moved to consolidate his power and eliminate any remaining opposition to his rule. Mosaddegh was tried for treason in a military court and sentenced to house arrest, where he remained until he died in 1967. The National Front was disbanded, and many of its leaders were imprisoned, executed, or forced into exile.
The new government, led by General Fazlollah Zahedi as Prime Minister, quickly moved to resolve the oil crisis on terms favourable to Western interests. The consortium agreement of 1954 ended Iranian control over its oil industry and instead created an international consortium that included American and European companies alongside the British. While Iran received a larger share of oil revenues than under the previous arrangement with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, the principle of national control over natural resources was abandoned.
The oil agreement was seen as a victory for Western interests because it broke the British monopoly while ensuring continued Western control over Iranian oil. American companies gained access to Iranian oil markets for the first time, while British interests were protected through their continued participation in the consortium. Most importantly, from the Western perspective, the dangerous precedent of successful oil nationalisation had been reversed.
With Western backing, the Shah began building an authoritarian state designed to prevent any future challenge to his rule. The SAVAK secret police, established in 1957 with assistance from the CIA and Israel’s Mossad, became one of the most feared security organisations in the Middle East. SAVAK was notorious for its use of torture and its systematic suppression of political opposition, earning Iran a reputation as one of the world’s most repressive regimes.
Contemporary relevance and ongoing tensions
The legacy of the 1953 coup continues to influence Iranian-American relations and Middle Eastern politics more broadly. Iranian leaders regularly invoke the memory of Mossadegh’s overthrow to justify their suspicion of Western intentions and their resistance to international pressure. The coup has become a symbol of foreign interference that resonates strongly with Iranian public opinion across political and ideological lines.
Contemporary tensions over Iran’s nuclear program, its support for regional allies, and its human rights record are all influenced by the historical legacy of 1953. Iranian officials argue that their country’s assertive foreign policy and development of nuclear capabilities are necessary responses to the threat of foreign interference. In contrast, Western officials view Iranian behaviour as evidence of the regime’s aggressive intentions.
The 1953 coup also provides important lessons for contemporary debates about intervention and regime change. The Iranian experience demonstrates how external interference in domestic political processes can create long-term problems that persist for generations, even when the immediate intervention appears successful.
Conclusion: The price of empire
The story of Iran from ancient Persia to the 1953 coup illustrates the complex interplay between internal development and external interference that has characterised much of the modern Middle East. It demonstrates how the discovery of oil transformed Iran from a peripheral player in international affairs into a central focus of great power competition, with consequences that continue to shape regional and global politics.
Operation Ajax represents both the apex of Western power in the Middle East and the beginning of its long-term decline. While the operation achieved its immediate objectives of protecting Western oil interests and maintaining Iran in the Western camp, it ultimately contributed to the anti-Western sentiment and political instability that have characterised the region for decades.
The events of 1953 offer crucial lessons about the limits of external power and the importance of respecting national sovereignty. Short-term tactical successes in foreign intervention often create long-term strategic disasters that persist for generations. The coup against Mossadegh may have secured Western access to Iranian oil for 25 years, but it also planted the seeds of the Islamic Revolution and created the hostile Iranian government that has been a significant challenge to Western interests ever since.
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