The history of Ashkenazi Jews

The Ashkenazi Jews, whose lineage traces back to the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland in Western Germany and Northern France, represent a tapestry woven with the threads of migration, resilience, and cultural evolution. This article delves into the origins, migrations, challenges, and contributions of the Ashkenazi Jewish community, tracing their journey from the Middle Ages to the present day.

Origins and early settlements

The origins of Jewish migration to Europe can be traced back to antiquity, with communities establishing themselves in Roman territories. These early settlements laid the groundwork for a Jewish presence in Europe that would expand and evolve over the centuries. 

The term “Ashkenazi” is derived from the Hebrew word for Germany, where the story of Ashkenazi Jewry begins. In the early Middle Ages, Jewish settlers in the Rhineland laid the foundations for a vibrant community. Over the centuries, these communities expanded eastward into Eastern Europe, notably Poland, Lithuania, Russia, and Ukraine, driven by opportunities and, often, by the need to escape persecution.

In the medieval period, Jewish life was characterised by a degree of autonomy within self-organised communities. Jews engaged in various professions, including trade, medicine, and money lending, the latter being a role Christians were often prohibited from undertaking due to usury laws.

However, this period was also marked by adversity. Jews faced expulsions from England and France, alongside the devastating impacts of the Crusades.

Expulsion 

Expulsion from England (1290)

The expulsion of Jews from England in 1290 was directed at the Jewish community that had been present in England since the Norman Conquest of 1066. By the time of the expulsion, this community was predominantly Ashkenazi, having migrated from France and the Rhineland. King Edward I of England issued the Edict of Expulsion in July 1290, which led to the expulsion of the Jewish population from England. This expulsion was part of a broader pattern of medieval European rulers expelling Jews from their territories, often due to economic reasons, religious intolerance, and the desire to cancel debts owed to Jewish moneylenders.

Expulsion from France (14th century)

In France, the situation was more complex, with expulsions occurring on several occasions during the 12th and 13th centuries, culminating in the 14th century. French Jews faced expulsions under various kings, notably Philip Augustus in 1182, Louis IX in the 1250s, and Philip IV in 1306. These expulsions were often reversed or ignored in practice, allowing Jews to return or remain in certain areas. However, by the time of the expulsion in 1394, which definitively ended the presence of Jews in France until the French Revolution, the Jewish community was again primarily Ashkenazi, having been replenished by migrations from the East.

The Crusades

Ashkenazi Jews were significantly affected by the Crusades, particularly during the First Crusade (1096-1099). The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period, aimed primarily to reclaim Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim rule. However, the fervour and religious zeal that motivated these campaigns also led to widespread violence against Jewish communities in Europe, especially those along the Rhineland.

Cultural and religious growth

In their new Eastern European homes, Ashkenazi Jews cultivated a rich cultural and religious life. They spoke Yiddish—a fusion of High German with Hebrew, Aramaic, and Slavic languages—and adhered to distinct religious customs passed down through generations. The Talmudic academies of Eastern Europe became centres of Jewish learning and scholarship, contributing significantly to Jewish thought and law.

Cuisine

With its roots in Central and Eastern Europe, Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine differs from Sephardic Jewish cuisine. It reflects the history, geography, and religious practices of Ashkenazi Jews. Originating from regions including Poland, Russia, Germany, and Lithuania, this culinary tradition is deeply influenced by Jewish dietary laws (kashrut) and Eastern Europe’s local ingredients and flavours.

Staples of Ashkenazi cuisine include:

• Challah: A sweet, braided bread sprinkled with sesame or poppy seeds, symbolising the manna from heaven, served on the Sabbath and Jewish holidays.
• Bagels: Dense, chewy rolls from Poland, often topped with seeds and served with cream cheese and smoked salmon (lox).
• Gefilte Fish: Poached fish patties made from carp, pike, or whitefish, served cold with horseradish during Passover and other holidays.
• Matzo Ball Soup: Light, fluffy balls made from matzo meal in chicken broth, a favourite during Passover and throughout the year.
• Latkes: Crispy potato pancakes for Hanukkah are served with applesauce or sour cream.
• Kugel: A baked pudding or casserole, sweet with raisins and cinnamon or savoury with onions and pepper, enjoyed during Sabbath and holiday meals.
• Brisket: A slow-cooked beef and traditional dish for Rosh Hashanah, Passover, and the Sabbath.
• Knishes: Snack-sized pies filled with mashed potatoes, meat, onions, or cheese, a popular comfort food.
• Borscht: Beet soup of Eastern European origin, adopted and adapted by Ashkenazi Jews, served hot or cold with sour cream.
• Hamantaschen: Triangular pastries filled with poppy seeds, nuts, or fruit, made for the festival of Purim.

This cuisine has become an integral part of Jewish cultural identity and is celebrated by Jewish communities worldwide. 

Historical challenges

The history of Ashkenazi Jews is marked by periods of severe hardship. From the Crusades to the pogroms in Eastern Europe, these communities faced violence and expulsion. The Holocaust, however, stands as the darkest chapter, with six million Jews, predominantly Ashkenazi, perishing at the hands of Nazi Germany.

Post-Holocaust resurgence and migration to Israel

The aftermath of World War II saw the decimated Ashkenazi communities seeking new beginnings. Many survivors found a home in the newly established State of Israel, contributing to its development and shaping its society. This period also saw significant Ashkenazi migration to the United States and other countries, where they have made notable contributions to various fields.

Ashkenazi Jews today

Today, Ashkenazi Jews are integral to the fabric of Israeli society and maintain vibrant communities worldwide. In Israel, they are part of a diverse Jewish population that includes Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews. At the same time, the global diaspora sees them continuing to influence culture, science, and politics.