Throughout American history, race riots have been pivotal in shaping the nation’s social, political, and economic landscape. These violent outbreaks, which often occurred in response to perceived injustices or inequalities, have left lasting scars on communities and highlighted the deep-rooted issues of racism and discrimination that continue to persist in the United States.
The 1917-1923 era of racial violence
Global context and technological advances
The race riots that took place between 1917 and 1923 occurred during an era marked by rapid social changes, including industrialisation, the transition to a war production economy, and technological advances in many fields. The violence during this period was exacerbated by the use of new technologies, such as telephones, electronic signboards, and telegraph messages, which allowed vigilantes to mobilise their forces more quickly and efficiently. Furthermore, the invention of the modern motion picture and the emergence of the mass viewing audience contributed to the widespread dissemination of racist ideologies and the normalisation of anti-black violence in American culture.
Postwar riot patterns and the Rosewood Massacre
The race riots that occurred from 1917 to 1923 can be understood as a continuation of the tradition of publicly sanctioned assaults against the progress of African Americans as a group. This national wave of riots was partly a response to the fact that Black people were waging increasingly effective struggles against white supremacy, aided by organisations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). However, many white citizens interpreted Black advancement as threatening their own interests, leading to a renewed wave of riots, massacres, and acts of racial terrorism. One particularly heinous example of this violence is the Rosewood Massacre in Florida, in which a predominantly Black town was burned to the ground, and several Black residents were lynched by a white mob in 1923.
Mass racial violence in the United States: Ethnic conflicts and race riots
Racial and ethnic cleansing
Throughout the history of the United States, racial and ethnic cleansing has been committed on a large scale, particularly against Native Americans, who were forcibly removed from their lands and relocated to reservations. Chinese Americans in the Pacific Northwest and African Americans throughout the country were also subjected to mob violence and expulsion from towns under the threat of mob rule.
Genocide of California’s Indigenous Peoples
After California gained statehood, the state government and settlers systematically enslaved, kidnapped, or murdered a significant portion of California’s Native American population. In 1851, Governor Peter Burnett predicted that a “war of extermination” would continue until the Indian race became extinct. This genocide resulted in the deaths of thousands of California Indians, and some historians argue that it constitutes a crime against humanity.
Anti-immigrant violence
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, violence against immigrant populations was rampant in the United States. Irish, Italian, and other immigrant groups faced discrimination, violence, and even lynching at the hands of white nativist mobs who sought to preserve their own social and economic positions.
Reconstruction Era (1863-1877)
The period following the Civil War, known as the Reconstruction Era, began a struggle for civil rights and equality for African Americans and other minority groups. The 14th and 15th Amendments, which theoretically granted African American and other minority males equal rights and voting privileges, were passed during this time. However, the North’s withdrawal of support for Reconstruction efforts in the South led to a resurgence of white supremacist violence and the establishment of Jim Crow laws, which effectively erased the progress made towards racial equality during this period.
The role of violence in Reconstruction politics
Violence played a significant role in the politics of Reconstruction, as white supremacists sought to maintain their power and control over the newly freed African American population. Groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and other paramilitary organisations targeted Black voters, politicians, and their white allies, using terror and intimidation to suppress their political participation.
Lynching and race riots in the post-Civil War South
Lynching, a brutal form of extrajudicial punishment carried out by mobs, was prevalent in the post-Civil War South to enforce racial hierarchies and maintain white dominance. Race riots also occurred throughout the South during this period, as whites targeted Black communities and individuals in acts of violence and retribution. These events served to further entrench racial divisions and inequalities in the region.
The Jim Crow Period (1877-1914)
The Jim Crow Period, which lasted from the end of Reconstruction in 1877 until the beginning of World War I in 1914, was characterised by an intensification of racial violence and discrimination against African Americans in the United States. This era witnessed the emergence of the “New South,” a region marked by the rise of white supremacist ideology, the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan, and the implementation of strict segregation laws and policies designed to oppress and marginalise the Black population.
The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898
In 1898, a coalition of white Republicans and African Americans controlled politics in Wilmington, North Carolina. A group of Democrats sought to remove Black people from the political scene by launching a campaign accusing Black men of sexually assaulting white women. In response, a mob of white men attacked and burned the office of a prominent Black newspaper editor, Alex Manly, and killed 14 African Americans in the ensuing violence.
The Atlanta Race Riot of 1906
Racial tensions in Atlanta reached a boiling point in 1906 when white Democratic candidates for governor, Hoke Smith and Clark Howell, played on whites’ fear of a rising Black middle class. Anti-Black violence broke out in September after newspapers printed stories about Black men assaulting white women, with most of the allegations proving false. Thousands of white men and boys took to the streets, beating Black men and attacking Black businesses. The violence resulted in the deaths of 25 to 100 African Americans and hundreds of injuries.
The Springfield Race Riot of 1908
The Springfield Race Riot in August 1908 was a brutal two-day attack by white citizens on the black community of Springfield, Illinois. It was triggered by the transfer of a black prisoner accused of rape, and the riot involved shootings, arson, looting, and lynching. The Illinois state militia was needed to suppress the violence. Following the riot, there was little remorse from the population, and some even advocated for the disenfranchisement of black citizens. This event led to white liberals and black citizens uniting to launch the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) after William English Walling’s article “Race War in the North” called for a revival of the abolitionist spirit.
World wars, interwar period, and post-war period (1914-1954)
The period spanning the two World Wars and the subsequent post-war years saw a continuation of racial violence and unrest in the United States. As African Americans migrated north in search of better economic opportunities and to escape the oppressive Jim Crow laws of the South, they faced increasing racial competition and hostility in Northern cities. This tension often erupted into violence, as seen in the numerous race riots that occurred during this period.
The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917
Thousands of African Americans seeking employment opportunities moved to East St. Louis, a historically white city, from the South during World War I. On 1 July, a rumour spread that a Black man had killed a white man, leading to an outbreak of anti-Black violence in the city. Whites shot, beat, and lynched African Americans, with estimated deaths ranging from 40 to 200.
The Red Summer of 1919
The Great Migration of African Americans from the South to the North in search of better economic opportunities and an escape from the oppressive Jim Crow laws of the South significantly contributed to the racial tensions that erupted into violence during this period. This mass movement of Black Americans led to increased racial competition for jobs, housing, and political power in Northern cities, which fueled white resentment and fear of Black advancement. The peak period of recorded violence occurred during the tumultuous months between April and October 1919, a season known as the “Red Summer.”
The Red Summer of 1919 saw race riots erupt in 26 US cities as racial tensions escalated in the volatile post-World War I environment. White soldiers returning from the war often found that their jobs had been taken by African Americans who had migrated north, fueling resentment and fear. At the same time, Black soldiers returned from the war embittered by the lack of civil rights extended to them. Race riots broke out in cities such as Washington, D.C., Knoxville, Tennessee, and Chicago, resulting in hundreds of deaths and injuries.
The Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921
The Tulsa Race Massacre occurred in 1921 in the Greenwood neighbourhood of Tulsa, Oklahoma, which was home to a prosperous Black community known as “Black Wall Street.” A young white woman accused a Black man, Dick Rowland, of grabbing her arm in an elevator, leading to Rowland’s arrest and an investigation. A mob of armed white men gathered outside the courthouse, and a confrontation between white and Black groups ensued, resulting in a shootout that left ten whites and two Blacks dead. The white mob then attacked Black businesses, homes, and residents in the Greenwood District, leaving over 35 city blocks burned, over 800 people injured, and between 100 and 300 people killed.
The history of race riots in the United States is a complex and deeply ingrained aspect of the nation’s past, reflecting a long-standing struggle for racial justice and equality, so it’s not surprising that race riots continued throughout the Civil Rights Era.
Continued in part two Race Riots in American History: From Civil Rights to present day.
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