India, with its deep cultural heritage and long history, has been home to various social customs, rituals, and traditions. While many of these practices celebrate the richness and diversity of Indian culture, others have been controversial and, by today’s standards, viewed as barbaric or inhumane. Over the centuries, social reforms, legal interventions, and movements for human rights have led to the abolition of many of these practices. Here is a look at some of these once-common cultural practices, why they were deemed unacceptable, and the legal measures taken to end them.
Sati (widow burning)
One of the most infamous practices in Indian history, Sati, involved the widow of a deceased man immolating herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. Rooted in the idea of devotion and purity, Sati was seen as a way for a widow to prove her loyalty to her late husband, often under societal pressure or coercion. It was practised in some areas of India, particularly among higher castes.
The horror of Sati came to international attention during the British colonial era. In 1829, Governor-General Lord William Bentinck, moved by both moral concerns and the vocal opposition of Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, outlawed the practice. The Bengal Sati Regulation of 1829 declared the act illegal and punishable as culpable homicide. Although isolated incidents of Sati persisted into the 20th century, they are now rare, and the practice is completely outlawed. In 1987, Roop Kanwar became the last known sati case.
Child marriage
Child marriage, where girls as young as eight or nine were wed to adult men, was once a widespread custom across India. It was driven by cultural norms, caste hierarchies, and a patriarchal mindset that viewed marriage as a way to secure family honour. Often, young brides were unprepared for the physical and emotional demands of marriage, leading to severe consequences for their health and well-being.
Efforts to end child marriage began in the early 20th century. The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929, also known as the Sarda Act, was the first significant legislation to curb the practice. Today, the minimum legal age for marriage in India is 18 for women and 21 for men, with stringent penalties for those who violate the law. Despite this, child marriage remains an issue in some rural regions, though it has significantly decreased in recent years.
The Devadasi system
The Devadasi system was an ancient tradition in which young girls were dedicated to serving in temples, often becoming symbolic brides of the deity. Over time, however, the practice deteriorated into a system of ritualised prostitution, where Devadasis were sexually exploited by priests, patrons, and wealthy landowners. It became especially prevalent in southern India and in parts of Maharashtra.
Efforts to abolish the Devadasi system began in the 19th century, but significant legal measures were not enacted until after India’s independence. The Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act of 1947 and similar laws in other states officially banned the practice. Today, although outlawed, the legacy of the Devadasi system persists in some areas, leading to ongoing social and rehabilitative work to aid the women affected.
Human sacrifice
Human sacrifice, though extremely rare, was practised in some ancient and tribal communities in India. It was believed to appease deities or ensure prosperity and good fortune. Some rituals involved offering human lives as part of religious ceremonies, especially during periods of crisis like famine or war.
The colonial and post-colonial governments of India viewed human sacrifice as barbaric and outlawed it altogether. Today, any form of human sacrifice is considered murder under Indian law. While no longer a widespread practice, occasional cases surface in remote areas, often attributed to superstition or misguided beliefs.
Female infanticide
Female infanticide, the practice of killing newborn girls, has deep roots in some Indian communities, mainly where there was a strong preference for sons. This custom was driven by economic factors, including dowry and social factors that placed a higher value on male heirs.
To combat this grim practice, the Indian government introduced several laws. The most significant is the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act of 1994, which bans sex determination tests and penalises those involved in sex-selective abortions. While female infanticide has decreased significantly due to these laws and awareness campaigns, issues related to gender preference continue to exist, especially in certain regions.
Dowry
The dowry system, where the bride’s family is expected to provide money or gifts to the groom’s family, often led to harassment, violence, and even murder of brides. Dowry demands could be financially crippling for the bride’s family, and failure to meet these demands sometimes resulted in severe domestic abuse or dowry deaths.
The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 criminalised the giving and taking of dowry in India. Despite the law, dowries are still in demand, and dowry-related violence persists in some parts of the country, although awareness and advocacy campaigns have helped reduce the frequency of these incidents.
Caste-based discrimination and untouchability
The ancient social hierarchy caste system classified individuals into rigid categories based on birth. Those in the lowest castes, particularly the Dalits (formerly referred to as “Untouchables”), were subjected to extreme forms of discrimination and exclusion. They were considered impure, barred from accessing public spaces like wells and temples, and forced into degrading jobs.
After India gained independence in 1947, caste-based discrimination was enshrined as illegal in the country’s new constitution. The practice of untouchability was explicitly abolished in Article 17, and laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955) and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989) were enacted to prevent caste-based violence and discrimination. Despite legal protections, caste-related prejudice remains a challenge in some areas.
Thuggee (banditry and human sacrifice)
The Thuggee practice, where bands of criminals known as Thugs would strangle travellers and rob them, was a form of ritual murder in service to the goddess Kali. The Thugs believed that their acts of murder were religiously sanctioned.
The Thuggees operated by joining groups of travellers and gaining their trust. They would then ambush during the night. They typically strangled their victims with a handkerchief or noose, a quick and quiet method that left no blood. The Thuggees would then rob the victims and bury their bodies.
During British colonial rule, William Henry Sleeman initiated a concerted effort to eliminate Thuggee in the 1830s. The Thugs were systematically hunted down, prosecuted, and either executed or imprisoned. The suppression of Thuggee is considered one of the most successful law enforcement campaigns of the British era.
Animal sacrifice
Animal sacrifice, particularly in religious ceremonies, has a long history in India. Animals such as goats, buffaloes, and chickens were commonly sacrificed to please gods or ward off evil. While it was a widespread practice, the inhumane treatment of animals in sacrificial rites attracted criticism from reformers and animal rights advocates.
While not wholly banned nationwide, several states have introduced legislation restricting or prohibiting animal sacrifices. The Himachal Pradesh Animal Sacrifice Prohibition Act of 2010 bans the ritual sacrifice of animals in temples and similar laws have been passed in states like Karnataka and Kerala.
Progress and human rights
The journey toward abolishing these practices marks India’s evolution from a society governed by rigid customs to one shaped by progressive laws and human rights. The reforms initiated to abolish Sati, child marriage, and caste-based discrimination, among other practices, reflect a societal shift toward justice, equality, and the protection of vulnerable groups. However, while these practices are outlawed, some persist in isolated areas due to entrenched social norms, emphasising the need for continued education, reform, and enforcement.
