The Republic of Chad has experienced significant internal conflict since its independence in 1960. The two most notable periods of unrest, the First and Second Civil Wars, were marked by intense violence, political instability, and foreign intervention. These wars were driven by deep-seated ethnic, regional, and political divisions, exacerbated by external influences and the legacy of colonialism.
The First Chadian Civil War (1965–1979)
The First Chadian Civil War, also known as the Chadian National Liberation War, began in 1965 and lasted until 1979. This conflict was primarily a result of the deep-seated regional and ethnic tensions within Chad, exacerbated by the authoritarian rule of the country’s first president, François Tombalbaye.
1. Background and Causes
The roots of the First Civil War can be traced back to the colonial era when the French employed a divide-and-rule strategy that exacerbated ethnic and regional divisions. Upon independence, Chad was already divided along ethnic and religious lines, with a predominantly Muslim north and a Christian/animist south. Tombalbaye, who hailed from the south, favoured his own ethnic group, the Sara, in government appointments and economic development, leading to widespread resentment in the north and east.
Key factors leading to the war included:
- Political repression: Tombalbaye’s regime was increasingly authoritarian, with opposition parties banned and dissent harshly repressed. The president’s policies alienated many northern and eastern groups who felt marginalised by the southern-dominated government.
- Economic disparities: The north and east of Chad were economically neglected, with little investment in infrastructure, education, or health services. The central government’s focus on the south further fueled discontent.
- Taxation and corruption: The imposition of unpopular taxes and rampant corruption within the government further exacerbated the tensions, particularly in the north, where resistance was strongest.
2. The outbreak of conflict
The war began in 1965 when a tax revolt in the Guéra region in central Chad escalated into a broader rebellion against Tombalbaye’s regime. The northern and eastern regions, inhabited mainly by Muslim groups, became the epicentres of resistance. Rebel groups, the most significant of which was the Front for National Liberation of Chad (FROLINAT), emerged, seeking to overthrow the government and address the grievances of the northern population.
FROLINAT, founded in 1966, quickly became the main opposition force, drawing support from various northern groups. The movement was fragmented, with different factions often pursuing their own agendas, but they were united in their opposition to Tombalbaye’s rule.
3. Foreign involvement
The conflict soon attracted the attention of neighbouring countries and global powers, further complicating the situation:
- Libya: Muammar Gaddafi’s Libya played a crucial role in supporting FROLINAT, providing arms, training, and financial support to the rebels. Gaddafi sought to expand Libya’s influence in the region and had territorial ambitions in northern Chad.
- France: The former colonial power, France, intervened on the side of the Chadian government, providing military support to Tombalbaye in an effort to maintain stability in its former colony and counter Libyan influence.
4. The overthrow of Tombalbaye
The war reached a turning point in 1975 when François Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in a military coup led by General Félix Malloum. However, the coup did not end the conflict; rather, it intensified as different factions vied for power. The new government struggled to establish control, and FROLINAT continued its insurgency.
5. The Fall of N’Djamena and the end of the war
By the late 1970s, Chad was in chaos, with multiple factions controlling different parts of the country. In 1979, the capital, N’Djamena, fell to rebel forces led by Goukouni Oueddei, who then established a coalition government with various rebel leaders. The war officially ended in 1979, but the country remained deeply divided and unstable.
The Second Chadian Civil War (1998–2002)
The Second Chadian Civil War, which took place between 1998 and 2002, was a continuation of the unresolved tensions from the first conflict, compounded by new political and military dynamics. This war was primarily a struggle between President Idriss Déby’s government and various rebel groups, many of which were remnants of the earlier conflict.
1. Background and causes
The period between the two civil wars was marked by continued instability and occasional violence. Idriss Déby, who came to power in 1990 after overthrowing Hissène Habré, faced significant challenges in consolidating his rule. Although Déby was from the north, he struggled to maintain the support of all factions within his own Zaghawa ethnic group and other northern groups.
Key factors leading to the second war included:
- Political marginalisation: Despite Déby’s promises of political reform, many groups, particularly in the south and among the opposition, felt excluded from power. Corruption and nepotism were rampant, further eroding public trust in the government.
- Military dissatisfaction: The military, instrumental in Déby’s rise to power, became increasingly disillusioned with his rule. Discontent within the army, especially among those from marginalised regions, led to defections and the formation of rebel groups.
- Economic grievances: Chad’s economy remained underdeveloped, with widespread poverty and unemployment. The discovery of oil in the early 2000s heightened tensions as various factions vied for control over the lucrative resources.
2. The outbreak of conflict
The second civil war began in 1998 when a faction of the Chadian army, led by Youssouf Togoimi, a former defence minister, defected and formed the Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad (MDJT). The MDJT launched an insurgency in the northern region of Tibesti, challenging Déby’s government.
3. The role of Libya
Libya again played a significant role in the conflict, although its involvement was more nuanced than in the first civil war. Gaddafi initially supported Déby but later assisted the MDJT in an attempt to maintain leverage over Chad’s government.
4. Peace efforts and ceasefires
The war saw intermittent fighting, with the government struggling to fully suppress the MDJT. Several attempts were made to broker peace, often mediated by Libya and other regional actors. In 2002, a peace agreement was reached between the government and the MDJT, formally ending the war.
5. Aftermath and legacy
The Second Chadian Civil War officially ended in 2002, but the country remained unstable, with sporadic violence continuing in various regions. Idriss Déby managed to retain power, but his rule was increasingly characterised by authoritarianism and repression.
The legacy of the Second Civil War included:
- Continued instability: Although the major fighting ended, Chad remained plagued by violence, with various rebel groups continuing to challenge the government.
- Oil wealth and corruption: The discovery of oil brought new economic opportunities but also fueled corruption and further divisions within the country.
- Foreign intervention: Chad continued to be influenced by external powers, particularly Libya and France, with both countries seeking to maintain their influence in the region.
Conclusion
The First and Second Chadian Civil Wars were deeply intertwined, with the latter being a continuation of the unresolved issues from the former. Both wars were driven by ethnic, regional, and political divisions, exacerbated by external interventions and the legacy of colonialism. The conflicts left Chad deeply scarred, with a legacy of instability, underdevelopment, and authoritarianism that continues to affect the country today. Understanding these wars is crucial for comprehending the ongoing challenges Chad faces in building a stable and prosperous future.
